"Young engineers, it looks as if you have mastered skyscrapers. Now you are ready for the challenge of building a bridge!" said the teacher to a small group of children in a first grade science classroom I recently visited.
She was addressing four students who had built a tall structure using cups, cardboard, and a variety of other materials. The structure was interesting, complex, and stable: it truly did show a high level of engineering. The students brightened visibly at their teacher's feedback and took their skyscraper down after she took a quick picture of it with her phone. As she walked off, I heard one student say to the others, "So, let's think about bridges. What's a bridge?"
I loved watching this moment, and this class at work. The teacher was doing rigorous, standards-based science instruction in a way that was also rich, engaging, challenging, and fun for her students and for her. Her careful planning, thoughtful selection of learning tasks, excellent classroom management, and strong relationship with her students led them to deep thinking and learning about science. Let me tell you a little more about the learning I saw:
The class was studying solids and liquids. After a mini-lesson that briefly reviewed the important concepts about solids they had been learning, the teacher sent about two-thirds of her students off to centers to explore the properties of solids in different ways. She stayed on the rug to begin teaching the rest about the properties of liquids. She gave pairs of students in this group a set of eight, tightly-sealed clear plastic containers of different liquids. She used interesting questions to encourage them to explore their liquids: "Scientists, see what happens if you shake your liquids. What do you notice? How are they similar? How are they different?" Once they'd gotten started, she left to check on the work of those at centers.
This is when she visited the table of "young engineers"and challenged them to use the solid materials at their table to build a bridge. After her visit with this group, the teacher quickly checked in at the next table, where students were happily looking through "I Spy" books to classify what they saw as solids or liquids on a recording sheet. Finally, she gave some quick, positive feedback to students who were creating mini-books about different solids and their characteristics at a third center.
One "careful observer" (as the teacher called her) at this last table answered my questions about solids by giving me a quick mini-lesson of her own on the subject. With exacting vocabulary (and a little concern that I didn't seem to know about the characteristics of solids already), she told me that solids usually keep the same shape. She let me know that solids could be flexible, like the plant she had drawn in one picture, rough like a rock, or hollow like an eggshell. She was so proud of her careful illustrations and labels! It was clear to me that this first grader had really internalized the vocabulary and concepts she was learning. She unquestionably understood what a solid was.
Meanwhile, the teacher had returned to the liquids group on the rug, sat down, and as if she had been there the whole time, said, "Okay, liquids down. What did you discover?" And so the lesson continued.
The children in this room were so happy and engaged that I could feel it. Their teacher's careful selection of age-appropriate tasks (first graders love to do things!), along with her careful set-up, cheerful reinforcement, and appropriate challenges, made all students feel safe and significant.
As often happens in rooms where children feel this way, the children's behavior was almost all positive: engaged, on-task, and appropriate. As a result, this teacher had to spend very little time redirecting students. Instead she was able to use her considerable energy to give them positive feedback, encouragement, and when needed, a little push. It was such an inspiring example of how we can meet standards and provide rigorous instruction while still teaching in ways that are engaging and developmentally appropriate. It was amazing to see her and her students at work!
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Teaching Future Scientists
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Guided Discovery In Action
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The fifth graders and their teacher, Mr. Lomax, sit in a circle. In front of Mr. Lomax is an array of five dictionaries. The largest dictionary has a worn leather cover and looks well-used. The rest of the dictionaries come in all sizes and shapes—two paperbacks, a bright red hardcover, and another hardcover that’s a sedate gray.
“Today we’re going to explore dictionaries,” Mr. Lomax says. “I love dictionaries. I always learn something new when I flip one open.” He picks up the old dictionary and gently touches its cover. “Now I know you’re all familiar with dictionaries. What have you used them for so far?”
A few hands shoot up.
“I look up words to see if I’ve spelled them right.”
“Whenever I ask my mom what a word means, she tells me to look it up.”
“We used a Spanish dictionary a lot last summer when we went to Puerto Rico.”
So begins a Guided Discovery of dictionaries. Guided Discovery is a teaching strategy used to introduce materials in the classroom. The primary goal of Guided Discovery is to generate interest and excitement about classroom resources and help children explore their possible uses. Guided Discovery also provides opportunities to introduce vocabulary, assess children’s prior knowledge, and teach responsible use and care of materials.
A Guided Discovery can take as little as fifteen or twenty minutes. But the interest and excitement that are generated and the skills that children practice support academic learning throughout the day. Here’s how it works:
Step One: Introduction and Naming
Second grade teacher Ms. Martell holds a covered plastic box. “I have some wonderful tools in this box,” she says as she shakes the box. “They come in many colors and you use them to draw. What could they be?”One of the goals of step one is to get children interested in the material. One way teachers do this—particularly with younger children—is to create a mystery. This engages children’s thinking and helps them see familiar materials with fresh eyes.
But materials don’t always need to be hidden inside packages, and introductions don’t always need to take the form of mysteries. The teacher’s tone of voice and the way s/he holds the material can catch children’s attention. In the opening vignette, the teacher’s excitement about the dictionaries and the reverence with which he handled the old dictionary helped get the children interested in learning more about the potential of a familiar tool.
Another goal of step one is to build a common knowledge base. To do this, teachers use open-ended questions that encourage children to think about their past experiences with the material and to share current observations. Questions such as “How have you used dictionaries so far?”, “What might be in this box? What are your clues?”, “What do you know about markers?”, and “Look closely at your ruler. What’s one thing you notice?” are all examples of open-ended questions.
Open-ended questions are at the heart of Guided Discovery, occurring in every step. When teachers ask an open-ended question, they are looking for a reasoned, relevant response rather than one “correct” answer. By listening without judgment to a range of answers, the teacher says “You have valuable experience and ideas that we want to hear about.”
Step Two: Generating and Modeling Students’ Ideas
“We’re all going to get a chance to work with the modeling clay today,” Ms. Wilson says to the circle of K–1 students. “First, we want to think about some ways to shape it. Who has an idea to share?” Students call out their ideas:“Make a ball.”
“Flatten it into a pancake.”
“Make a long, skinny snake.”
“What a great start!” Ms. Wilson says when there is a pause. “I wonder if we can come up with two more ideas.”
“Make a letter.”
“Make a number.”
In step two, the teacher invites children to think through how to use the material. Ms. Wilson begins with an open-ended question to get children thinking. When the brainstorming falters, she challenges the students to go beyond their first ideas. She uses the phrase “I wonder” so that the challenge seems fun rather than stressful.
After the children name ideas for using the material, the teacher invites them to model some of the uses:
“Alexis, you suggested making a ball,” Ms. Wilson says. “Will you show us how you do that?”
Alexis sits down next to Ms. Wilson, takes the small piece of clay that Ms. Wilson hands her, and carefully rolls and pats it into a ball.
While she works, Ms. Wilson asks the rest of the class, “What do you notice about how Alexis is making a ball?”
There are many situations during a typical day when a teacher needs to show students the correct way to do something (for example, the safe way to carry scissors). However, during Guided Discovery teachers turn to the students to model their own ideas. This sends the message that the teacher values the children’s ideas for using the material creatively and appropriately and trusts their ability to do so. As several children step forward to shape clay or draw a design with markers or look up a word in the dictionary, everyone in the class observes and learns.
Step Three: Exploration and Experimentation
“Now you will all be able to try some of the ideas we listed for using markers,” second grade teacher Ms. Martell says. She distributes sheets of cardboard and drawing paper. She then passes around the box of markers, asking each child to take two. At first, all the children work on the same tasks—drawing a figure, making a design, writing big letters—tasks that they just saw modeled. After a while, Ms. Martell says, “Now you can try out an idea of your own.” As the children explore, she walks around to observe their work, pausing occasionally to make a suggestion or redirect a student who has gotten off track.After students have generated a list of ideas and a few children have modeled ideas, it’s time for children to independently explore the material. They tend to begin trying what was modeled. But with encouragement, they’ll soon start experimenting with new ideas. Although the teacher sets some limits on the task, the children still can make choices about how to do the task. They learn to turn to their own and their classmates’ resources rather than always looking to the teacher.
Step Four: Sharing Exploratory Work
After a brief exploratory time, Ms. Martell, the second grade teacher, rings the chime to get children’s attention. “It’s time to share our work,” she says. “If you would like us to see your work, put it on the floor in front of you.” All but two children display their drawings. “Without talking, everyone look around and see all the good ideas!” There is a moment of silence as the children look. “Who would like to share one detail that you noticed?”“Ramona used lots of different colors.”
“Ray’s design looks like lots of lightning bolts.”
The children continue sharing things they notice.
“Now who would like to tell us one thing they like about their own drawings?” Many hands go up.
There are many opportunities during Guided Discovery for children to learn from each other: they share and model their ideas, sometimes help each other during exploration, and at the end of the Guided Discovery they have an opportunity to share the work they’ve done.
Work-sharing is always voluntary; in order for children to feel free to experiment, they need to know they won’t have to make their results public. Ms. Martell lowered the risk of work-sharing by having the entire group display their designs at once. She knows that the more examples of each other’s work children see, the more opportunity they have to learn from each other.
Step Five: Cleanup and Care of Materials
The fourth graders in Mr. Alonzo’s classroom are finishing a Guided Discovery of rulers. “We’ll be keeping our rulers on the supply shelf with our other tools such as pencils, scissors, and staplers,” Mr. Alonzo says. “Who can show us a safe and careful way to put your ruler away when you’re done with it?”Jocelyn volunteers. Holding her ruler by her side, she calmly walks to the supply shelf and neatly places the ruler in the box marked “rulers.”
“What do you notice about how Jocelyn put her ruler away?” Mr. Alonzo asks.
In the final step, the teacher engages the children in thinking through, modeling, and practicing how they will clean up materials, put them away, and access them independently at a later time. As in previous steps, it is the children who generate and model ideas.
Earlier in the year, Mr. Alonzo had already discussed with the children where and how the rulers are stored. He now trusts that Jocelyn can take the lead in reminding the class how to put the rulers away in their designated spot.
Goals of Guided Discovery
- To excite children about classroom materials
- To help children explore materials with confidence and imagination and build a repertoire of constructive ways to use the materials in their academic learning
- To enable children to make independent and purposeful choices
- To establish and teach norms and routines for the use, care, and storage of materials
Guided Discovery Benefits Learning
Guided Discovery has a deep impact on children’s learning. Children get interested in classroom materials and learn how to use them creatively in their academic work. They have opportunities to stretch their thinking and work independently. Perhaps most importantly, children are at the center of the process. Every aspect of Guided Discovery encourages children to offer ideas, act on them, and share the results of their work with others, which stimulates everyone’s thinking about future uses of the material.Paula Denton is the author of The Power of Our Words and Learning Through Academic Choice and the co-author, with Roxann Kriete, of The First Six Weeks of School.
Learn more about Guided Discovery:
- Denton, Paula and Roxann Kriete. 2000. The First Six Weeks of School. Greenfield, MA: NEFC.
- See it in action in two classrooms—Kerry Tuttlebee's third grade and Suzi Sluyter's kindergarten—on the Guided Discovery in a Responsive Classroom DVD.
- Charney, Ruth Sidney. 2002. Teaching Children to Care. Greenfield, MA: NEFC.
in Discussion Models
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We Have to Teach Students to
Think for themselves,
Fulfill their potential,
Be creative,
Gain self esteem,
Be ready for this productive world .
Developing teachers must learn to consider these Five Habits of Mind
in order to make defensible decisions in their practice.
in order to make defensible decisions in their practice.
The habits of mind interact, so there is no set order in which they must be considered.
Teachers need to think about :
The Learners with whom they are working;
How does the learner’s background , experience , and mode of
learning relate to the teacher’s decision making ?
How does the learner’s background , experience , and mode of
learning relate to the teacher’s decision making ?
The Contexts of the classroom, school and community;
What impact does the physical , psychological , and social
environment have on instructional decision making ?
What impact does the physical , psychological , and social
environment have on instructional decision making ?
The Curriculum they will be teaching;
What are the implications of the selection of content ,
materials , and experiences ?
What are the implications of the selection of content ,
materials , and experiences ?
The Methods of Instruction they will use;
What models , strategies , and techniques for teaching and
learning will match the characteristics of the learners and
instructional goals ?
What models , strategies , and techniques for teaching and
learning will match the characteristics of the learners and
instructional goals ?
How they will Assess the learning that goes on;
How can we observe and make judgments about student
learning in fair , accurate ways that also improve instruction ?
How can we observe and make judgments about student
learning in fair , accurate ways that also improve instruction ?
There are Five Habits of Mind we should develop in our students.
Students need to ask themselves :
- How do we know what we think we know?
What's our evidence? How credible is it?
What's our evidence? How credible is it?
- Whose viewpoint are we hearing, reading, seeing?
What other viewpoints might there be if we changed our
position , our perspective?
What other viewpoints might there be if we changed our
position , our perspective?
- How is one thing connected to another?
Is there a pattern here?
Is there a pattern here?
- How else might it have been?
What if? Supposing that?
What if? Supposing that?
- What difference does it make?
Who cares?
Who cares?
There are many models for teaching the disciplines and/or ideas of humankind.
There may be as many models for teaching these structures as there are people.
There may be as many models for teaching these structures as there are people.
The primary purpose of this course is to promote as many introductory
experiences, with well established models as possible. As we have these
experiences , we can realize that some models are more to our liking than others
and this is perhaps due to the way we learn best.
Each one of us has a pattern for learning and this pattern has evolved from our
background experiences.
experiences, with well established models as possible. As we have these
experiences , we can realize that some models are more to our liking than others
and this is perhaps due to the way we learn best.
Each one of us has a pattern for learning and this pattern has evolved from our
background experiences.
Therefore , each student-teacher has to learn as many different models for
teaching as he or she can , so that a greater pedagogical success can evolve .
teaching as he or she can , so that a greater pedagogical success can evolve .
Whatever model of teaching or method of instruction we use, there are certain elements we
ought to consider.
ought to consider.
A model of teaching makes sense because it is appropriate for the objective or goal of the
lesson.
For example, it makes no sense to choose the presentation (lecture) model to get students to
explore their feelings about an issue.
Thus, models are not interchangeable--they make sense only if they
contribute to what we want students to learn.
lesson.
For example, it makes no sense to choose the presentation (lecture) model to get students to
explore their feelings about an issue.
Thus, models are not interchangeable--they make sense only if they
contribute to what we want students to learn.
Each model has implications for how we should structure the classroom environment, which
goes beyond a seating arrangement. We can easily lecture to kids sitting passively in rows; the
same arrangement (and passivity) would be deadly to a cooperative learning activity.
So, we need to consider the implications for our classroom in using a given model.
goes beyond a seating arrangement. We can easily lecture to kids sitting passively in rows; the
same arrangement (and passivity) would be deadly to a cooperative learning activity.
So, we need to consider the implications for our classroom in using a given model.
Finally, each model has a syntax, or series of steps to follow.
For example, when we teach a direct instruction lesson (which is appropriate for teaching
procedural knowledge or skills), we have to be certain to include guided practice.
For example, when we teach a direct instruction lesson (which is appropriate for teaching
procedural knowledge or skills), we have to be certain to include guided practice.
As we learn models, we need to examine the elements and note the distinctions among them.
This is sometimes called direct teaching. It's probably what most people think of when they
imagine a teacher.
The teacher gives a clear explanation of how to do something , and the student observes,
practices, and eventually masters this skill.
One advantage of the direct instruction model over the presentation model (lecture )is that there
is a built-in guarantee that students will be doing something.
Otherwise, the models are fairly similar.
imagine a teacher.
The teacher gives a clear explanation of how to do something , and the student observes,
practices, and eventually masters this skill.
One advantage of the direct instruction model over the presentation model (lecture )is that there
is a built-in guarantee that students will be doing something.
Otherwise, the models are fairly similar.
Objectives : Direct instruction is appropriate for teaching a procedural objective, such as
having students be able to diagram a sentence, conduct an experiment, create a piece of pottery,
and so on.
having students be able to diagram a sentence, conduct an experiment, create a piece of pottery,
and so on.
Syntax : Recommended order for developing a good direct instruction lesson:
1. Provide an anticipatory set.
2. Communicate our objectives (through a statement, question, or
some other means). We might tell them what they will be able to
do at the end of the lesson that they cannot do now.
3. Demonstrate the skill. This means we have to do it. If we are
teaching them to throw a pot (art), then we need to walk them
through the steps, articulating what we do as we go.
As a rule, it is more effective if we list those steps for the
students (on the board, in a handout, etc.).
4. Provide guided practice. This means the students try out what
we've taught them, but they do so under our careful guidance.
WE walk around to monitor what they are doing.
Remember, if they practice it wrong, they'll have a much more
difficult time learning the right way.
5. Check for understanding and provide feedback. They need to
know if they are doing it right.
6. Provide for independent practice. This generally means
homework, though sometimes this is not possible, due to
materials.
7. Provide closure. Review the steps of the process.
1. Provide an anticipatory set.
2. Communicate our objectives (through a statement, question, or
some other means). We might tell them what they will be able to
do at the end of the lesson that they cannot do now.
3. Demonstrate the skill. This means we have to do it. If we are
teaching them to throw a pot (art), then we need to walk them
through the steps, articulating what we do as we go.
As a rule, it is more effective if we list those steps for the
students (on the board, in a handout, etc.).
4. Provide guided practice. This means the students try out what
we've taught them, but they do so under our careful guidance.
WE walk around to monitor what they are doing.
Remember, if they practice it wrong, they'll have a much more
difficult time learning the right way.
5. Check for understanding and provide feedback. They need to
know if they are doing it right.
6. Provide for independent practice. This generally means
homework, though sometimes this is not possible, due to
materials.
7. Provide closure. Review the steps of the process.
Environment : Like presentation, this is a teacher-dominated form of instruction. The
environment reflects this, though the students' practicing is a refreshing break from the teacher
lecturing.
environment reflects this, though the students' practicing is a refreshing break from the teacher
lecturing.
Effects : Students should be able to DO whatever procedure you have taught them.
A secondary effect is that you instill confidence in students.
They leave a good direct instruction lesson with a sense of confidence that they can do
something.
A secondary effect is that you instill confidence in students.
They leave a good direct instruction lesson with a sense of confidence that they can do
something.
OBJECTIVE
Stated in behavioral terms - “ by (insert time or date), the learner will (insert verb phrase
showing what the student will do) with (insert percentage %) accuracy, as measured by (insert
evaluation format). ”
Stated in behavioral terms - “ by (insert time or date), the learner will (insert verb phrase
showing what the student will do) with (insert percentage %) accuracy, as measured by (insert
evaluation format). ”
ANTICIPATORY SET
Prepares student for the lesson ,
Refers to knowledge learned in previous lessons ,
Previews new lesson , often with a question.
The Objective is often directly stated to the students.
DIRECT INSTRUCTION
Instruction presented by the teacher to the whole class or
group - actual teaching .
GUIDED PRACTICE
Students try out information presented in the lesson under the
direct guidance of the teacher.
Immediate feedback is given to the student
INDIVIDUAL PRACTICE
Students practice information in larger blocks, either in the
presence of the teacher, with more at home (homework).
Feedback on correctness should follow as close to the lesson as
possible.
CLOSURE
Teacher and students restate the objective
Prepares student for the lesson ,
Refers to knowledge learned in previous lessons ,
Previews new lesson , often with a question.
The Objective is often directly stated to the students.
DIRECT INSTRUCTION
Instruction presented by the teacher to the whole class or
group - actual teaching .
GUIDED PRACTICE
Students try out information presented in the lesson under the
direct guidance of the teacher.
Immediate feedback is given to the student
INDIVIDUAL PRACTICE
Students practice information in larger blocks, either in the
presence of the teacher, with more at home (homework).
Feedback on correctness should follow as close to the lesson as
possible.
CLOSURE
Teacher and students restate the objective
EVALUATION
Evaluation of the materials completed or discussion related to
the objective
Evaluation of the materials completed or discussion related to
the objective
1- Planning the Lesson
1.1 Topic “Conditional Sentences”
1.2 Objectives
a - Content :
Students will know the difference between the
indicative and conditional moods .
Students will be able to use the verbs in conditional
sentences ( 1st and 2nd types ) accurately .
Students will be able to justify the use of the tenses
in conditional sentences (1st and 2nd types ).
b - Process :
Students will observe then answer questions , give
examples , practice , correct ….
They will be actively involved and will assume more
responsibility as the lesson progresses .
1.3 Prerequisite Knowledge
Indicative Mood with all its tenses
+ Irregular Verbs
+ Modals
1.4 Selected Examples
1) If you study you (will ) succeed
2) If you studied you would succeed
[ In addition to the examples the students could give]
1.1 Topic “Conditional Sentences”
1.2 Objectives
a - Content :
Students will know the difference between the
indicative and conditional moods .
Students will be able to use the verbs in conditional
sentences ( 1st and 2nd types ) accurately .
Students will be able to justify the use of the tenses
in conditional sentences (1st and 2nd types ).
b - Process :
Students will observe then answer questions , give
examples , practice , correct ….
They will be actively involved and will assume more
responsibility as the lesson progresses .
1.3 Prerequisite Knowledge
Indicative Mood with all its tenses
+ Irregular Verbs
+ Modals
1.4 Selected Examples
1) If you study you (will ) succeed
2) If you studied you would succeed
[ In addition to the examples the students could give]
2 - Implementing the Lesson
[ I would like first to mention a few things :
Course Name = English as a third language
Grade = 10th
Time = 100 minutes
Number of students = 20 ]
[ I would like first to mention a few things :
Course Name = English as a third language
Grade = 10th
Time = 100 minutes
Number of students = 20 ]
2.1 Lesson Introduction
- “Good morning everyone , how are you today ? Are you ready to start the lesson ?”
- “Yes miss !”said the students all together .
- “ Excellent ! Then let’s start ……
As you recall , we have been studying the tenses in the indicative mood for the last two months ; who can tell me what this mood expresses ? …… Tony ?”
- “ REALITY !” said Tony enthusiastically .
- “ Good , Tony , and how do you know that ?”
- “ I know it because when I say for example ‘I am talking now ’,it is an action in the indicative mood and it expresses something that is really happening .”
- “ Very well …What else can you tell me about this mood ? …… Sonia?”
- “ You taught us to think logically when we use the tenses ”.
- “ Yes, I really did , good Sonia ! … You know , once you study the tenses and the different moods logically , you find them very easy and you never forget them .
Now , let’s switch to something else : it’s the Conditional Mood and, especially , its application in Conditional sentences .
I can tell you something , once you have grasped this mood and its use , you will be able to avoid all those grammar mistakes in your essays !”
- “Yes miss !”said the students all together .
- “ Excellent ! Then let’s start ……
As you recall , we have been studying the tenses in the indicative mood for the last two months ; who can tell me what this mood expresses ? …… Tony ?”
- “ REALITY !” said Tony enthusiastically .
- “ Good , Tony , and how do you know that ?”
- “ I know it because when I say for example ‘I am talking now ’,it is an action in the indicative mood and it expresses something that is really happening .”
- “ Very well …What else can you tell me about this mood ? …… Sonia?”
- “ You taught us to think logically when we use the tenses ”.
- “ Yes, I really did , good Sonia ! … You know , once you study the tenses and the different moods logically , you find them very easy and you never forget them .
Now , let’s switch to something else : it’s the Conditional Mood and, especially , its application in Conditional sentences .
I can tell you something , once you have grasped this mood and its use , you will be able to avoid all those grammar mistakes in your essays !”
2.2 Lesson Presentation
- “ I would like to start with something very important : unlike the indicative mood , the conditional mood does not express reality ! It expresses a condition _ you can tell from its name .
( Here the teacher goes to the chalkboard and writes : )
e.g. If you study you will succeed
What do you need in order to succeed ? You need to study ; so studying is the condition for success to take place .
Now about the sentences ; there are three major types of conditional sentences ……today we’ll study the first two .
Who can give me the first one ?………Yes , Mira ?”
- “ You’ve just given it to us , miss ,‘If you study you will succeed.’ ”
- “ So we can say that : if + present => future
- “ Miss, can’t we say ‘If you study you succeed ’ ?” asked Marcel .
- “ Yes we can , Marcel , but there will be a slight change in meaning . When you say ‘If you study you will succeed ’, you are talking to someone specific , and the time is specific ; but when you use the simple present tense in the main clause , you are talking in general ; the time is not specific .
Now what about the second type , do you know anything about it? ……… Cynthia ?
- “ If + Simple Past => would + ……”
- “ …Incomplete infinitive ! ” interrupted Raja .
- “ Good Raja , but you should have let Cynthia answer ! ”
So the example will be ‘ If you studied you would succeed ’.
What is the difference between the first and second types …………
Samar ?”
- “ The action in the first one is in the present while the action in the second one is in the past . ”
- “ This is what I want you to pay attention to ! No , contrary to what everyone usually thinks , when we use the simple past in the conditional sentences the action always and only refers to the present tense .
So what is the difference between the two types ?
The difference , dear students , is that in the first type we don’t know anything about the person we are talking to , about the fact , while in the second type we know that the fact is different from the if clause .
(The teacher goes back to the board and writes )
1) If you study (now) you will succeed
[what is implied here is that I don’t know anything about
the fact ]
2) If you studied (now) you would succeed
[what is implied here is that I know you are not
studying ,the fact is different from the If clause ]
=> BUT you are not studying ”
( Here the teacher goes to the chalkboard and writes : )
e.g. If you study you will succeed
What do you need in order to succeed ? You need to study ; so studying is the condition for success to take place .
Now about the sentences ; there are three major types of conditional sentences ……today we’ll study the first two .
Who can give me the first one ?………Yes , Mira ?”
- “ You’ve just given it to us , miss ,‘If you study you will succeed.’ ”
- “ So we can say that : if + present => future
- “ Miss, can’t we say ‘If you study you succeed ’ ?” asked Marcel .
- “ Yes we can , Marcel , but there will be a slight change in meaning . When you say ‘If you study you will succeed ’, you are talking to someone specific , and the time is specific ; but when you use the simple present tense in the main clause , you are talking in general ; the time is not specific .
Now what about the second type , do you know anything about it? ……… Cynthia ?
- “ If + Simple Past => would + ……”
- “ …Incomplete infinitive ! ” interrupted Raja .
- “ Good Raja , but you should have let Cynthia answer ! ”
So the example will be ‘ If you studied you would succeed ’.
What is the difference between the first and second types …………
Samar ?”
- “ The action in the first one is in the present while the action in the second one is in the past . ”
- “ This is what I want you to pay attention to ! No , contrary to what everyone usually thinks , when we use the simple past in the conditional sentences the action always and only refers to the present tense .
So what is the difference between the two types ?
The difference , dear students , is that in the first type we don’t know anything about the person we are talking to , about the fact , while in the second type we know that the fact is different from the if clause .
(The teacher goes back to the board and writes )
1) If you study (now) you will succeed
[what is implied here is that I don’t know anything about
the fact ]
2) If you studied (now) you would succeed
[what is implied here is that I know you are not
studying ,the fact is different from the If clause ]
=> BUT you are not studying ”
2.3 Guided Practice + Feedback
- “O.K. now , let’s practice whatever we’ve just learned .
[ The teacher gives them a handout on which there is an exercise on conditional sentences : 1st and 2nd types ; they have to put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense and to justify the use of the tenses .
While the students are doing the exercise , the teacher passes by them , answers questions and corrects in case there is something wrong .
Then they correct the exercise all together . ]
[ The teacher gives them a handout on which there is an exercise on conditional sentences : 1st and 2nd types ; they have to put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense and to justify the use of the tenses .
While the students are doing the exercise , the teacher passes by them , answers questions and corrects in case there is something wrong .
Then they correct the exercise all together . ]
2.4 Closure
- “ Now that you have practised the use of the first two types of conditional sentences , how can you summarize what you’ve learned today ………Samir ?
- “ We have learned the conditional mood , what it expresses , and the first two types of conditional sentences .”
- “ What is the most important difference between these two types …………Salim ?”
-“ The fact in the second type is different from the If clause while in the first one we don’t know anything about it .”
- “ Does anyone of the two types refer to the past ……… Aileen ?”
- “ No , both of them refer to the present .”
- “ Excellent , you seem to have understood everything . Now so that you consolidate whatever you’ve learnt , I will give you a homework assignment .”
- “ We have learned the conditional mood , what it expresses , and the first two types of conditional sentences .”
- “ What is the most important difference between these two types …………Salim ?”
-“ The fact in the second type is different from the If clause while in the first one we don’t know anything about it .”
- “ Does anyone of the two types refer to the past ……… Aileen ?”
- “ No , both of them refer to the present .”
- “ Excellent , you seem to have understood everything . Now so that you consolidate whatever you’ve learnt , I will give you a homework assignment .”
2.5 Independent Practice
[ The teacher gives the students a homework assignment to promote retention , automaticity and transfer .
Exercise : ‘Finish the following sentences using the first or second types of conditional sentences , then justify the use of the type .’ ]
Exercise : ‘Finish the following sentences using the first or second types of conditional sentences , then justify the use of the type .’ ]
3 - Assessing Student Learning :
Individual Test :
Write a paragraph of 15 lines (150 words) on the following
topic :
“ What would you do if you had only one year to live?”
By Nada AbiSamratopic :
“ What would you do if you had only one year to live?”
Inductive strategy : (Inductive, Concept-Attainment and Integrative Models)
1.Present the best example first, name it, and ask questions to
elicit the attributes students think might be important to the
concept.
2.Present a second example for comparison and have students
compare the two to test which attributes are criterial and
which are noncriterial.
3.Present additional examples and nonexamples, engaging
students in discussion of the attributes and sorting the
noncriterial from the criterial.
4.List the attributes and ask questions intended to have the
students verbalize the concept rule or definition (X are ___?).
5.Assess learning by presenting new examples and nonexamples
and seeing if students can sort them into the proper categories.
6.Assess by introducing a related concepts and comparing it to
that just learned.
[Note: this process can also begin with a problem, that is, a position of psychological doubt, that moves students to seek an answer to the puzzle or mystery posed.]
1.Present the best example first, name it, and ask questions to
elicit the attributes students think might be important to the
concept.
2.Present a second example for comparison and have students
compare the two to test which attributes are criterial and
which are noncriterial.
3.Present additional examples and nonexamples, engaging
students in discussion of the attributes and sorting the
noncriterial from the criterial.
4.List the attributes and ask questions intended to have the
students verbalize the concept rule or definition (X are ___?).
5.Assess learning by presenting new examples and nonexamples
and seeing if students can sort them into the proper categories.
6.Assess by introducing a related concepts and comparing it to
that just learned.
[Note: this process can also begin with a problem, that is, a position of psychological doubt, that moves students to seek an answer to the puzzle or mystery posed.]
Deductive strategy : ( Direct-Instruction and Lecture-Discussion Models )
1.Present the best example first, define it, and list the attributes
most important to the concept.
2.Present a second example for comparison and indicate which
attributes are criterial and which are noncriterial.
3.Provide additional examples and through practice and
feedback, ensure that students understand criterial and
noncriterial attributes.
4.Assess learning in the same way as above.
1.Present the best example first, define it, and list the attributes
most important to the concept.
2.Present a second example for comparison and indicate which
attributes are criterial and which are noncriterial.
3.Provide additional examples and through practice and
feedback, ensure that students understand criterial and
noncriterial attributes.
4.Assess learning in the same way as above.
Strategies for Instruction
There can always be a range of abilities in the same class,
and sometimes that range is wide.
Instruction has to be such that students at all levels of
thinking can be included , and the materials and activities
must be open ended to enable all students to participate.
and sometimes that range is wide.
Instruction has to be such that students at all levels of
thinking can be included , and the materials and activities
must be open ended to enable all students to participate.
1) Teaching Techniques
- Speak slowly and clearly, but not loudly.
- Make the consequences for successful performance attractive.
- Share the completion of the student's work with another adult or
peer in the class, or with an interested person outside the
classroom.
- Use concrete manipulative materials to develop whole concepts.
- Photocopy notes if the student is unable to write clearly.
- Encourage peers to assist in thinking of ways in which the
student can accomplish a task: "How can Steven do this
assignment?"
- Invite the student to assist in lesson presentation, by
participating in brainstorming, for example, or by giving out
materials.
- Provide a print outline of the main points that the student is to
learn from listening to the lesson, reading a passage in a book,
listening to a tape, or watching a video, with blanks to be filled
in as the information is given.
- Allow the student extra time for assignments and tests.
- Recognize the length of time that the student can stay on task,
then provide opportunities for breaks and teach the student an
acceptable way to ask for a break.
- Use different color chalks and felt pens to emphasize
important points, and to make it easier for the student to find
her place on the board or paper.
- Use highly contrasting colors.
- Enlarge the print.
- Glue the steps of an operation inside the front cover of the
student's book for easy reference.
- Provide a print copy of the text so that the examples can be
done on the sheet. Often, errors occur when the student copies
and much time is used up. The examples can be enlarged if
more space is required for the answers. One or two questions
can be presented at a time to make the task less threatening.
- Provide written instructions of the steps to be followed to
complete a task.
- Provide picture instructions of the steps to be followed to
complete a task.
- Organize the student's materials ahead of time.
- When appropriate, offer a choice of two or three materials or
activities.
- Structure the sequence of activities.
- Make the consequences for successful performance attractive.
- Share the completion of the student's work with another adult or
peer in the class, or with an interested person outside the
classroom.
- Use concrete manipulative materials to develop whole concepts.
- Photocopy notes if the student is unable to write clearly.
- Encourage peers to assist in thinking of ways in which the
student can accomplish a task: "How can Steven do this
assignment?"
- Invite the student to assist in lesson presentation, by
participating in brainstorming, for example, or by giving out
materials.
- Provide a print outline of the main points that the student is to
learn from listening to the lesson, reading a passage in a book,
listening to a tape, or watching a video, with blanks to be filled
in as the information is given.
- Allow the student extra time for assignments and tests.
- Recognize the length of time that the student can stay on task,
then provide opportunities for breaks and teach the student an
acceptable way to ask for a break.
- Use different color chalks and felt pens to emphasize
important points, and to make it easier for the student to find
her place on the board or paper.
- Use highly contrasting colors.
- Enlarge the print.
- Glue the steps of an operation inside the front cover of the
student's book for easy reference.
- Provide a print copy of the text so that the examples can be
done on the sheet. Often, errors occur when the student copies
and much time is used up. The examples can be enlarged if
more space is required for the answers. One or two questions
can be presented at a time to make the task less threatening.
- Provide written instructions of the steps to be followed to
complete a task.
- Provide picture instructions of the steps to be followed to
complete a task.
- Organize the student's materials ahead of time.
- When appropriate, offer a choice of two or three materials or
activities.
- Structure the sequence of activities.
2) Adapt the Goals
- Simplify the vocabulary in the questions.
- Simplify the reading materials by highlighting the main points
in the textbook or handouts so that the student can get the
main ideas.
- Provide general reading on the same topic of study, but at the
appropriate reading level.
- Use the same materials and work, but teach concrete rather
than abstract concepts, or simpler rather than more
complicated concepts.
- Change the criteria for successful performance.
- Assign smaller amounts of work.
- Substitute a similar but easier task.
- Substitute a prerequisite task on the same topic.
- Clarify the task directions.
- Restate in simpler language.
- Ask a peer to repeat the directions.
- Provide only one or two directions at a time.
- Explain unfamiliar terms.
- Write directions on the board in front of the student.
- Write directions on a small board or piece of paper on the
student's desk.
- Record directions on tape so that they can be listened to one at
a time.
- Use hand signals or signing for the student who has a hearing
impairment.
- Provide directions in Braille for the student who has a visual
impairment.
- Stand close to the student and gain eye contact before giving
direction.
- Simplify the reading materials by highlighting the main points
in the textbook or handouts so that the student can get the
main ideas.
- Provide general reading on the same topic of study, but at the
appropriate reading level.
- Use the same materials and work, but teach concrete rather
than abstract concepts, or simpler rather than more
complicated concepts.
- Change the criteria for successful performance.
- Assign smaller amounts of work.
- Substitute a similar but easier task.
- Substitute a prerequisite task on the same topic.
- Clarify the task directions.
- Restate in simpler language.
- Ask a peer to repeat the directions.
- Provide only one or two directions at a time.
- Explain unfamiliar terms.
- Write directions on the board in front of the student.
- Write directions on a small board or piece of paper on the
student's desk.
- Record directions on tape so that they can be listened to one at
a time.
- Use hand signals or signing for the student who has a hearing
impairment.
- Provide directions in Braille for the student who has a visual
impairment.
- Stand close to the student and gain eye contact before giving
direction.
3) Change the Task Characteristics
- Tape record the answers.
- Make a chart, model, or collage.
- Decorate a bulletin board.
- Make a time line.
- Interview a person using a questionnaire.
- Interview a person using a tape recorder.
- Shoot a "TV show" using a video camera.
- Prepare a radio or TV commercial.
- Act out a play, skit or mime show.
- Give an oral presentation using a prepared chart of pictures or
photographs, or picture cue cards.
- Provide a scribe.
- Use a calculator.
- Use pictures to illustrate work.
- Provide a computer printout.
- Make a chart, model, or collage.
- Decorate a bulletin board.
- Make a time line.
- Interview a person using a questionnaire.
- Interview a person using a tape recorder.
- Shoot a "TV show" using a video camera.
- Prepare a radio or TV commercial.
- Act out a play, skit or mime show.
- Give an oral presentation using a prepared chart of pictures or
photographs, or picture cue cards.
- Provide a scribe.
- Use a calculator.
- Use pictures to illustrate work.
- Provide a computer printout.
4) Provide Prompts
Teachers use prompts or cues for all students. Some students
require a more intense level of prompting in order to
accomplish a task.
require a more intense level of prompting in order to
accomplish a task.
Prompts should be given in the least intrusive way, and with
the intention of fading them as soon as possible. This is
necessary so that the student does not become bound by the
prompt. A student may begin to think he is not allowed to do
the next part of a task until the prompt has been given. If
the prompting is constant and static it may discourage the
student from trying the next step of the process.
the intention of fading them as soon as possible. This is
necessary so that the student does not become bound by the
prompt. A student may begin to think he is not allowed to do
the next part of a task until the prompt has been given. If
the prompting is constant and static it may discourage the
student from trying the next step of the process.
Gradually move through levels of prompts as the student
begins to master each task.
begins to master each task.
1.Physically assist the student to do the task.
2.Then give what physical assistance is necessary to
complete the task.
3.Give a gesture, or model the task, so that the student
can copy the action.
4.Give a direct verbal prompt, such as: "Pick up your
pen."
5.Give an indirect verbal prompt, such as: "What do you
do next?"
2.Then give what physical assistance is necessary to
complete the task.
3.Give a gesture, or model the task, so that the student
can copy the action.
4.Give a direct verbal prompt, such as: "Pick up your
pen."
5.Give an indirect verbal prompt, such as: "What do you
do next?"
Students who are provided with support from a teacher
assistant or a volunteer sometimes rely on that person to
give the direction, rather than responding to the direction
when it is given by the teacher.
The teacher can make it clear that when he/she addresses
the whole class the student is included.
It may be necessary to cue the student that a direction is
about to be given and that it is time to listen.
assistant or a volunteer sometimes rely on that person to
give the direction, rather than responding to the direction
when it is given by the teacher.
The teacher can make it clear that when he/she addresses
the whole class the student is included.
It may be necessary to cue the student that a direction is
about to be given and that it is time to listen.
5) How to Deal with Tasks
1.Analyze the task.
2.Break the task into small teachable steps.
3.Analyze the steps the student needs to know in order to
complete a task.
4.Determine which steps the student knows well, partially
knows, or still needs to learn.
5.Teach the steps that are partially known, followed by
the steps that are still to be learned.
6.Provide additional opportunities for practice to maintain
the steps already learned as well as the ones being
worked on.
2.Break the task into small teachable steps.
3.Analyze the steps the student needs to know in order to
complete a task.
4.Determine which steps the student knows well, partially
knows, or still needs to learn.
5.Teach the steps that are partially known, followed by
the steps that are still to be learned.
6.Provide additional opportunities for practice to maintain
the steps already learned as well as the ones being
worked on.
Learning and teaching are active, collaborative, constructive, and continuous processes which enable teachers and students to reflect upon and analyze their own learning and teaching.
Direct experience in learning situations is essential.
Learners should engage in developmentally appropriate activities that are meaningful and authentic.
High standards of scholarship are essential for both teachers and students to remain at the forefront of sound educational practice and change.
Teachers should :
Have a solid background in the knowledge of the learner, content, pedagogy, and self;
Apply this knowledge to make appropriate decisions regarding students, curriculum, and instructional strategies;
Engage in continual reflection and analysis;
Experience life-long professional growth and actively participate in their schools and communities.
Jigsaw in 10 Easy Steps
.
The jigsaw classrom is very simple to use. If you're a teacher, just follow these steps:
- Divide students into 5- or 6-person jigsaw groups. The groups should be diverse in terms of gender, ethnicity, race, and ability.
- Appoint one student from each group as the leader. Initially, this person should be the most mature student in the group.
- Divide the day's lesson into 5-6 segments. For example, if you want history students to learn about Eleanor Roosevelt, you might divide a short biography of her into stand-alone segments on: (1) Her childhood, (2) Her family life with Franklin and their children, (3) Her life after Franklin contracted polio, (4) Her work in the White House as First Lady, and (5) Her life and work after Franklin's death.
- Assign each student to learn one segment, making sure students have direct access only to their own segment.
- Give students time to read over their segment at least twice and become familiar with it. There is no need for them to memorize it.
- Form temporary "expert groups" by having one student from each jigsaw group join other students assigned to the same segment. Give students in these expert groups time to discuss the main points of their segment and to rehearse the presentations they will make to their jigsaw group.
- Bring the students back into their jigsaw groups.
- Ask each student to present her or his segment to the group. Encourage others in the group to ask questions for clarification.
- Float from group to group, observing the process. If any group is having trouble (e.g., a member is dominating or disruptive), make an appropriate intervention. Eventually, it's best for the group leader to handle this task. Leaders can be trained by whispering an instruction on how to intervene, until the leader gets the hang of it.
- At the end of the session, give a quiz on the material so that students quickly come to realize that these sessions are not just fun and games but really count.
Tips on Implementation
.
Compared with traditional teaching methods, the jigsaw classroom has several advantages:
- Most teachers find jigsaw easy to learn
- Most teachers enjoy working with it
- It can be used with other teaching strategies
- It works even if only used for an hour per day
- It is free for the taking
Too good to be true? Well, yes and no. It would be misleading to suggest that the jigsaw sessions always go smoothly. Occasionally, a dominant student will talk too much or try to control the group. How can we prevent that? Some students are poor readers or slow thinkers and have trouble creating a good report for their group. How can we help them? At the other end of the talent continuum, some students are so gifted that they get bored working with slower students. Is the jigsaw technique effective with them? In some cases, students may never have experienced cooperative learning before. Will the jigsaw technique work with older students who have been trained to compete with one another? All of these problems are real but not fatal. The Problem of the Dominant Student
Many jigsaw teachers find it useful to appoint one of the students to be the discussion leader for each session, on a rotating basis. It is the leader's job to call on students in a fair manner and try to spread participation evenly. In addition, students quickly realize that the group runs more effectively if each student is allowed to present her or his material before question and comments are taken. Thus, the self interest of the group eventually reduces the problem of dominance.
The Problem of the Slow Student
Teachers must make sure that students with poor study skills do not present an inferior report to the jigsaw group. If this were to happen, the jigsaw experience might backfire (the situation would be akin to the untalented baseball player dropping a routine fly ball with the bases loaded, earning the wrath of teammates). To deal with this problem, the jigsaw technique relies on "expert" groups. Before presenting a report to their jigsaw groups, each student enters an expert group consisting of other students who have prepared a report on the same topic. In the expert group, students have a chance to discuss their report and modify it based on the suggestions of other members of their expert group. This system works very well. In the early stages, teachers may want to monitor the expert groups carefully, just to make sure that each student ends with an accurate report to bring to her or his jigsaw group. Most teachers find that once the expert groups get the hang of it, close monitoring becomes unnecessary.
The Problem of Bright Students Becoming Bored
Boredom can be a problem in any classroom, regardless of the learning technique being used. Research suggests, however, that there is less boredom in jigsaw classrooms than in traditional classrooms. Youngsters in jigsaw classes report liking school better, and this is true for the bright students as well as the slower students. After all, being in the position of a teacher can be an exciting change of pace for all students. If bright students are encouraged to develop the mind set of "teacher," the learning experience can be transformed from a boring task into an exciting challenge. Not only does such a challenge produce psychological benefits, but the learning is frequently more thorough.
The Problem of Students Who Have Been Trained to Compete
Research suggests that jigsaw has its strongest effect if introduced in elementary school. When children have been exposed to jigsaw in their early years, little more than a "booster shot" (one hour per day) of jigsaw in middle school and high school is required to maintain the benefits of cooperative learning. But what if jigsaw has not been used in elementary school? Admittedly, it is an uphill battle to introduce cooperative learning to 16-year olds who have never before experienced it. Old habits are not easy to break. But they can be broken, and it is never too late to begin. Experience has shown that although it generally takes a bit longer, most high school students participating in jigsaw for the first time display a remarkable ability to benefit from the cooperative structure.
In Conclusion
Some teachers may feel that they have already tried a cooperative learning approach because they have occasionally placed their students in small groups, instructing them to cooperate. Yet cooperative learning requires more than seating youngsters around a table and telling them to share, work together, and be nice to one another. Such loose, unstructured situations do not contain the crucial elements and safeguards that make the jigsaw and other structured cooperative strategies work so well.
jigsaw class room
.
The jigsaw classroom is a cooperative learning technique with a three-decade track record of successfully reducing racial conflict and increasing positive educational outcomes. Just as in a jigsaw puzzle, each piece--each student's part--is essential for the completion and full understanding of the final product. If each student's part is essential, then each student is essential; and that is precisely what makes this strategy so effective.
Here is how it works: The students in a history class, for example, are divided into small groups of five or six students each. Suppose their task is to learn about World War II. In one jigsaw group, Sara is responsible for researching Hitler's rise to power in pre-war Germany. Another member of the group, Steven, is assigned to cover concentration camps; Pedro is assigned Britain's role in the war; Melody is to research the contribution of the Soviet Union; Tyrone will handle Japan's entry into the war; Clara will read about the development of the atom bomb.
Eventually each student will come back to her or his jigsaw group and will try to present a well-organized report to the group. The situation is specifically structured so that the only access any member has to the other five assignments is by listening closely to the report of the person reciting. Thus, if Tyrone doesn't like Pedro, or if he thinks Sara is a nerd and tunes her out or makes fun of her, he cannot possibly do well on the test that follows.
To increase the chances that each report will be accurate, the students doing the research do not immediately take it back to their jigsaw group. Instead, they meet first with students who have the identical assignment (one from each jigsaw group). For example, students assigned to the atom bomb topic meet as a team of specialists, gathering information, becoming experts on their topic, and rehearsing their presentations. We call this the "expert" group. It is particularly useful for students who might have initial difficulty learning or organizing their part of the assignment, for it allows them to hear and rehearse with other "experts."
Once each presenter is up to speed, the jigsaw groups reconvene in their initial heterogeneous configuration. The atom bomb expert in each group teaches the other group members about the development of the atom bomb. Each student in each group educates the whole group about her or his specialty. Students are then tested on what they have learned about World War II from their fellow group member.
What is the benefit of the jigsaw classroom? First and foremost, it is a remarkably efficient way to learn the material. But even more important, the jigsaw process encourages listening, engagement, and empathy by giving each member of the group an essential part to play in the academic activity. Group members must work together as a team to accomplish a common goal; each person depends on all the others. No student can succeed completely unless everyone works well together as a team. This "cooperation by design" facilitates interaction among all students in the class, leading them to value each other as contributors to their common task.
